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Chapter 1: The Revolution of Carbon Allotropes: Discovery and Historical Significance Prior to 1985, the scientific understanding of pure carbon allotropes was largely confined to diamond with $sp^3$ hybridization and graphite with $sp^2$ hybridization. In September of that year, a collaborative research team led by Harold Kroto, Richard Smalley, and…

In the vast landscape of materials science and organic chemistry, few discoveries have revolutionized our understanding of molecular architecture quite like the C60 molecule. For decades, textbooks taught that pure carbon existed primarily in two naturally occurring allotropic forms: diamond and graphite. That paradigm shifted permanently in 1985 with the…